HABs Increasing in Frequency Worldwide

Getting into Soil and Water 2020

Courtesy Grace Wilkinson.

 

Have you ever gone to the lake and been greeted by unwelcome, smelly scum? Algae are terrestrial and aquatic organisms that produce energy through photosynthesis. They are a primary food source for other organisms and produce oxygen during their photosynthetic process. Rapid growth of algae, called algal blooms, occurs naturally across aquatic landscapes. However, there is a group of bacteria called cyanobacteria that has similar photosynthetic characteristics and functions in aquatic systems. Cyanobacterial blooms, called harmful algal blooms (HABs), are capable of producing dangerous toxins.

HABs are increasing in frequency worldwide. Here in the Midwest, changing climate conditions and increased nutrient loss (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen from agricultural systems or municipal sewage wastes) feed these algal blooms, creating negative impacts for aquatic life, public health, recreation, and drinking water quality management.

The pressing threat of HABs has led to increased research activity across many governmental and non-governmental programs, including the United States Geological Survey’s (USGS) Water Resources Mission Area. The Water Resources Research Act of 1964 created
a national network of Water Resources Research Institutes (WRRI), administered by USGS. In 2017, nine WRRIs in the Upper Mississippi River Basin aligned their research focus on HABs with the intent to gain, share, and synthesize knowledge on HABs in order to develop a regional product.

In 2018, with the support from the North Central Region Water Network (NCRWN), this regional coordination initiative led to the formation of a twelve-state team partnering WRRIs and Cooperative Extension to assess current HABs outreach and education efforts and establish uniform recommendations for the North Central Region. Cooperative Extension, also a part of the Land-Grant University System, is often on the front lines of communication research-based information to stakeholders. Using HABs as the focal issue, this team sought to inventory current WRRI-sponsored HABs research, inventory and identify gaps in Extension HABs publications and outreach efforts, and bring Extension and WRRIs together to assess programming needs.

After completing these inventories, the partnership identified five key topic areas in which to develop messaging for outreach materials:

  • General HABs Knowledge. There is a need across the region to provide basic information on HABs. The products developed with this messaging are a “one-stop shop” for high-level HABs information. For states that are lacking in resources or public demand to provide more in-depth HABs information on specific topics, these products provide a base-level introduction to HABs.
  • Identifying, Monitoring, and Treating HABs. Identifying, monitoring, and treating HABs are the logical next step for those in regions experiencing HABs. Those that see algal blooms will wonder if they are harmful algae or nuisance algae; water professionals and citizen groups like watershed coalitions and lake associations will be interested to know how they can control them. There are many resources that exist outside of Extension for identifying, monitoring, and treating HABs, particularly those offered by the Environmental Protection Agency and state agencies (who typically house a monitoring program for HABs or beach closures). Extension products can provide information specific to identifying, monitoring, and treating HABs that then refer people to these additional resources.
  • Human Health and HABs. Both humans and domestic animals can come into contact with HABs, either through drinking contaminated water, eating fish, or recreating in lakes and rivers. Ingesting toxins produced by some HABs can lead to neurological problems, including respiratory distress and convulsions (neurotoxins), and gastrointestinal illnesses, liver, and kidney diseases (hepatotoxins). Contact with the skin (dermatoxins) can cause rashes and skin irritation. In addition to these acute effects, the effects of chronic exposure to cyanotoxins are difficult to study and not well understood. Human health concerns may be a key entry point for raising concern among many populations and policymakers.
  • Animal Health and HABs. In some states, like North Dakota and Missouri, the primary public concern regarding HABs resulted from pet and livestock deaths from drinking or coming into contact with algal toxins. While humans might attribute their symptoms to other common illnesses, animals that ingest toxins may suffer sudden death from acute toxicity, placing more importance on preventing animals from coming into contact with blooms.
  • Landscape Nutrient Management Practices and HABs. Human-derived sources of nutrients are a primary contributor to the development of HABs in aquatic ecosystems. Agricultural, or non-point source systems, are inherently leaky systems, and their impacts on aquatic systems are increased by climate change. Forecasting how nutrients leave the landscape is a challenge because of the unpredictability of weather conditions. However, the use of nutrient management practices can minimize nutrient loss from agricultural systems and benefit farmers and those downstream. Nutrient management practices that address both nitrogen and phosphorus losses are a primary prevention strategy for HABs.
Courtesy Eugene Braig.

 

Partnership members self-selected into sub-groups to develop key messaging for each of three audiences: the general public (any person who might encounter HABs); the engaged citizen (individuals interested in taking action with HABs knowledge learned); and water professionals (those actively working in professions that may deal with the prevention, identification, treatment, or monitoring of HABs). Additionally, the team made recommendations for products to develop for use in Extension and outreach programming. For this list, as well as the comprehensive package of key messaging, please refer to the white paper available at https://northcentralwater.org/files/2019/11/HAB-11-22-2019. pdf.

This comprehensive and partnered approach to tackling one of the region’s most pressing water issues is a good start to building a culture of collaboration among the major players in water research and education. It is important to engage with the diverse breadth of interested parties: soil and water conservation district staff, agricultural and environmental engineers, local watershed groups, county conservation boards, municipal and county staff, farmers and ranchers, neighborhood associations, and citizen scientists, to name a few. Partnering to solve water resource issues in our states is the best path forward.

Melissa Miller

Former Associate Director for the Iowa Water Center

Can Traditional Ecological Knowledge Be Integrated Into Modern Cropping Systems to Enhance Soil and Water Conservation?

Getting into Soil and Water 2020

Figure 1. Some examples of Native American agricultural practices – past (a-c) and present (e) – and modern practices in Wunturu, Ghana (Mapio, 1985), d). a)-c) Corn hills in Taunton, Massachusetts during the early 1920s c). d) Similar structure as corn hills shown in more recent day Wunturu, Ghana (Mapio, 1985). e) Relic ridge structures in a modern overgrown forest near Ft. Atkinson, Iowa (Peterson, 2019). Ridges are running left-to-right and indicated with similar colored arrows as you move from foreground to background.

All agricultural cultures, including those of Indigenous peoples, depend on their relationship with soils to sustain their way of life. Soils are not only the foundation of human agriculture, but most Indigenous farming communities developed intimate knowledge of the relationships between plants, soils, and people based on generations of experience growing in a particular landscape. Even though many cultures grew crops on soil, they did not all have the same management practices. First, we will briefly explore traditional ecological knowledge of Indigenous peoples of North Americans with regards to soils. Second, we will explore how their traditional ecological knowledge might inform modern, mainstream agriculture.

Native American gardens were (and still are) interwoven deeply throughout the culture of each Native nation; stories and songs describe the crops being grown. The traditional ecological knowledge (see Box for definition) that Indigenous people developed through careful thought and observation of the natural world guided the way that each person utilized resources on the landscape when hunting, gathering, and farming (McGregor, 2004, Berkes et al., 2000). This knowledge is based through each generation, teaching young Native American gardeners to recognize the differences in cropping systems and which systems were most appropriate for a particular landscape.

Two common planting methods used by Native American gardeners, noted throughout archeological literature of the early twentieth century, include garden ridges and corn hills (Delabarre and Wilder, 1920; Figure 1). Corn hills are small rounded humps of soil that typically measured around eight inches high and up to 4 feet across. Depending on the community that was using them, early archeologists state that they might either be oriented in an organized fashion or haphazardly (Delabarre and Wilder, 1920). Garden ridges are tubular shaped, often found beside one another, creating a field of ridges. Sometimes these ridged fields were broken up by corn hills interspaced within them (Sasso, 2003). Some of these ancient ridged field sites spanned over 100 acres (Fowler, 1969).

Annual soil amendments to the garden ridges and corn hills were used to enhance soil fertility; this is important as these cropping areas were used multiple years in a row (Delabarre and Wilder, 1920). Native farmers used various soil amendments to build soil health, including river muck (Hurt, 1987), the use of fallow periods (Caduto, 1996), mulches (Wilken, 1972), and dead fish (Delabarre and Wilder, 1920). Native farmers’ use of biodiverse cropping systems, such as growing corn, squash, and beans (colloquially known as the three sisters) in the same space at the same time, also allowed for a highly productive agronomic system (Monaghan et al., 2014; Mt. Pleasant, 2011)

What Can We Learn?

Currently, in the Midwestern United States, corn (Zea mays) is king. However, this large grain crop has had an intimate relationship with humans for over 6,000 years (Piperno and Flannery, 2001). By harnessing its productive capacity, and that of soybean (Glycine max.), through crop breeding (new genetics) and management practices, we have made much progress with increasing yields. However, this progress has come with major problems with soil and water quality.

We now face soil erosion rates that are ten times or greater what would ‘naturally’ occur (Montgomery, 2007), soil organic matter levels that are on average 50% less than before cultivation (Gebhart et al., 1994; Guo and Gifford, 2002), and severely impaired local and downstream water quality (Rabalais et al., 2001; Sharpley et al., 1994; Turner and Rabalais, 2003). Where did we go wrong? Traditional ecological knowledge is emerging as a new concept that crosscuts across multiple disciplines – like anthropology and agronomy. Recent studies on TEK have shown its importance to informing modern, mainstream science. Some of these studies highlight the hubris of modern, mainstream science by showing that modern scientists sometimes “discover” something that has been known for centuries (Nicholas, 2018). But TEK shows potential for informing modern ecological or agricultural knowledge (Bonta et al., 2017; Bowman et al., 2015; Mantyka- Pringle et al., 2017).

A pertinent example of this ability of TEK to inform modern agriculture, and perhaps help alleviate some of the environmental issues it has created, is the Native American practice of Three Sisters Intercropping. Three Sisters intercropping combines corn, common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), squash (Cucurbita moschata), and sometimes sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) – colloquially called the three sisters (or four sisters including sunflowers). These were typically planted on corn hills (Figure 1).

Currently, lack of crop diversity is one of the underlying factors for the soil and water quality issues in Midwestern US – which is dominated by corn and soybean (Glycine max.) production. Here is where TEK of Three Sisters Intercropping might inform modern agriculture. Crop Diversity is one of the NRCS’s ‘Principles of Soil Health’, and many farmers are reviving relay and intercropping across the Midwestern US. There is already evidence that Three Sisters polyculture increased crop yield (Zhang et al., 2014). It is likely that the ecological interactions among corn, beans, and squash could help to advance modern intercropping – not only for enhanced yields – but also making for a more regenerative and sustainable agricultural future.

 

Derrick Kapayou
Graduate Student Anthropology, Iowa State University

Christina Gish-Hill, PhD
Associate Professor Department of World Languages and Cultures, Iowa State University

Marshall McDaniel, PhD
Assistant Professor Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University

 

References:

Berkes, F., & Usher, P. J. 2000. Sacred knowledge, traditional ecological knowledge & resource management. Arctic, 53(2), 198.

Bonta, M., Gosford, R., Eussen, D., Ferguson, N., Loveless, E., & Witwer, M. 2017. Intentional fire-spreading by “Firehawk” raptors in Northern Australia. Journal of Ethnobiology, 37(4), 700-719.

Bowman, D. M., Gibson, J., & Kondo, T. 2015. Outback palms: Aboriginal myth meets DNA analysis. Nature, 520(7545), 33.

Caduto, M. J., & Bruchac, J. 1996. Native american gardening: Stories, projects, and recipes for families. Fulcrum Publishing.

Delabarre, E. B., & Wilder, H. H. 1920. Indian corn-hills in Massachusetts. American Anthropologist, 22(3), 203-225.

Fowler, M. L. 1969. Middle Mississippian agricultural fields. American Antiquity, 34(4), 365-375.

Gebhart, D. L., Johnson, H. B., Mayeux, H. S., & Polley, H. W. 1994. The CRP increases soil organic carbon. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 49(5), 488-492.

Guo, L. B., & Gifford, R. M. 2002. Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta analy- sis. Global change biology, 8(4), 345-360.

Hurt, R.D. 1987. Indian Agriculture in America, Prehistory to Present. Lawrence: Uni- versity Press of Kansas.

Zhang, C., Postma, J. A., York, L. M., & Lynch, J. P. 2014. Root foraging elicits niche complementarity-dependent yield advantage in the ancient ‘three sisters’(maize/bean/ squash) polyculture. Annals of botany, 114(8), 1719-1733.

Mantyka-Pringle, C. S., Jardine, T. D., Bradford, L., Bharadwaj, L., Kythreotis, A. P., Fresque-Baxter, J., … & Lindenschmidt, K. E. 2017. Bridging science and traditional knowledge to assess cumulative impacts of stressors on ecosystem health. Environment international, 102, 125-137.

Mapio. 1985. Northern Ghana. https://mapio.net/pic/p-2441402/. Accessed 23 Dec. 2019

Montgomery, D. R. 2007. Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(33), 13268-13272.

Mt. Pleasant, Jane. 2011. The paradox of plows and productivity: an agronomic compar- ison of cereal grain production under iroquois hoe culture and European plow culture in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Agricultural History 85(4): 460-492.

Nicholas, G. 2018. It’s taken thousands of years, but Western science is finally catching up to Traditional Knowledge. The Conversation, 15.

Peterson, C. 2019. Personal Communication, August 27th, 2019.

Piperno, D. R., & Flannery, K. V. 2001. The earliest archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from highland Mexico: new accelerator mass spectrometry dates and their implica- tions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(4), 2101-2103.

Rabalais, N. N., Turner, R. E., & Wiseman, W. J. 2001. Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexi-
co. Journal of Environmental Quality, 30(2), 320-329.

Sasso, R. F. 2003. Vestiges of ancient cultivation: The antiquity of garden beds and corn hills in Wisconsin. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, 195-231.

Sharpley, A. 1999. Agricultural phosphorus, water quality, and poultry production: Are they compatible?. Poultry Science, 78(5), 660-673.

Turner, R. E., & Rabalais, N. N. 2003. Linking landscape and water quality in the Mis- sissippi River basin for 200 years. Bioscience, 53(6), 563-572.

Wilken, G. C. 1976. Integrating forest and small-scale farm systems in Middle Ameri- ca. Agro-ecosystems, 3, 291-302.

Nitrogen Pollution of Air and Water in Iowa

Getting into Soil and Water 2020

Figure 1. Cross section schematic of a lysimeter.

 

Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for all life. Iowa farmers help ensure their crops have enough nitrogen by growing nitrogen-fixing plants, like soybeans, or by applying fertilizer and manure. Ideally, nitrogen is taken up by the crops and removed with harvest. Unfortunately, nitrogen is also lost to the environment, primarily to the air and water (Libra, Wolter, & Langel, 2004). When water moves through the soil it can take nitrogen with it, particularly in the form of nitrate (Jones, Nielsen, Schilling, & Weber, 2018). This process is called leaching, and it carries nitrate from soils to surface and ground waters. Excess nitrate in drinking water is unsafe for human consumption. In lakes, streams, and the Gulf of Mexico, too much nitrate contributes to algal blooms, which can suffocate fish and other animals when the algae decays. Nitrogen is also lost to the air through denitrification, where microbes respire nitrate instead of oxygen when oxygen is unavailable, such as periods when soils are saturated with water. Denitrification converts nitrate to three gases: nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, and dinitrogen gas. Iowa soils have been shown to produce little nitric oxide, so we will focus on nitrous oxide and dinitrogen gas (Hall, Reyes, Huang, & Homyak, 2018). Dinitrogen gas is harmless and makes up approximately 80% of the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide, on the other hand, is a powerful greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming and the destruction of the ozone layer. Regardless of the gas produced, denitrification in soils removes nitrogen that could have been utilized by crops.

At Iowa State University, our lab researches how to reduce nitrate leaching and denitrification to nitrous oxide gas. We are particularly interested in how topography plays a role in both processes. In north-central Iowa, the topography
of the Des Moines Lobe is dominated by former depressional wetlands, commonly referred to as potholes. Despite extensive attempts to drain potholes to prevent their flooding and allow crops to be cultivated, the potholes still flood in wet years and generally have higher soil moisture than the surrounding uplands (Logsdon, 2015). As water is required for leaching and is expected to promote denitrification by limiting oxygen availability, we wanted to investigate if potholes had higher rates of both.

To answer these questions, we installed lysimeters in a line from the center of
a pothole to the surrounding uplands (Figure 2). Each lysimeter diverted soil water as it flowed through the soil to a collection container (Figure 1). After each precipitation event, we measured the volume of water and the concentration of nitrate and other forms of nitrogen in the diverted water to quantify how much nitrogen was leached. Our results suggest higher rates of leaching in potholes than in the surrounding uplands (N. Lawrence, unpublished). Thanks to a grant from the Iowa Water Center, we were also able to quantify total denitrification across the pothole through a cutting-edge isotopic technique. Our results indicate that the potholes support only slightly higher rates of denitrification than the surrounding uplands. Collectively, these results suggest that potholes are a source of nitrate leaching to downstream ecosystems and are poorly effective at removing nitrogen through denitrification.

Figure 2. Installing lysimeters.

 

Future research will focus on strategies to reduce leaching and denitrification to nitrous oxide. Potholes could be targeted for alternative management to help achieve these goals. Perennial plants such as bioenergy crops may be able to reduce leaching by more effectively taking up nitrogen and water (McIsaac, David, & Mitchell, 2010). These crops could also reduce denitrification to nitrous oxide by similarly reducing the nitrate required for denitrification. We are currently investigating whether planting a perennial bioenergy crop will reduce leaching and denitrification to nitrous oxide.

Nate Lawrence

PhD Candidate Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Iowa State University

 

References:

Hall, S. J., Reyes, L., Huang, W., & Homyak, P. M. (2018). Wet Spots as Hotspots: Moisture Responses of Nitric and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Poorly Drained Agricultural Soils. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 123(12), 3589–3602.

Jones, C. S., Nielsen, J. K., Schilling, K. E., & Weber, L. J. (2018). Iowa stream nitrate and the Gulf of Mexico. PLOS ONE, 13(4), e0195930.

Libra, R., Wolter, C., & Langel, R. (2004). Nitrogen and phosphorus budgets for Iowa and Iowa watersheds. Technical Information Series.

Logsdon, S. D. (2015). Event- and Site-Specific Soil Wetting and Seasonal Change in Amount of Soil Water. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 79(3), 730–741.

McIsaac, G. F., David, M. B., & Mitchell, C. A. (2010).

Miscanthus and Switchgrass Production in Central Illinois: Impacts on Hydrology and Inorganic Nitrogen Leaching. Journal of Environmental Quality, 39(5), 1790–1799.

The Economics of Water Quality Policy

Getting into Soil and Water 2020

Ada Hayden Heritage Park in Ames, Iowa. (Courtesy of Andrew Zalasky)

When one thinks about what a professional in the field of water science looks like, they might envision a biologist, chemist, or other scientist working in the laboratory or in the field. However, there are many other types of professionals besides those studying our water and working to improve its quality. Dr. David Keiser, a professor of economics at Iowa State University, focuses on the economics of water quality policies, and analyzes the effectiveness of current policies and how to improve them.

When he was younger, Dr. Keiser wasn’t initially sure of what his career path would be. He studied various topics as an undergraduate and decided to pursue a Master’s in applied economics at the University of Georgia after seeing the kind of work an economist does. There, he became intrigued about environmental economics, specifically water resource economics. After completing his Ph.D. at Yale University, he found his calling in academia.

Currently, Dr. Keiser’s research interests are in environmental and natural resource economics, mostly focusing on the economics of water quality policies. “These policies include legislation such as the Clean Water Act that governs surface waters – lakes, rivers, streams – and the Safe Drinking Water Act that governs drinking water quality,” he says. Dr. Keiser cites his interest in nature and love for outdoor recreation – such as swimming, fishing, and boating – as well as his enjoyment of math-based problem solving and statistics, as the reasons behind his research interests. “Economics utilizes a lot of quantitative tools to help society figure out how
best to allocate scarce resources, such as government funds. The combination of my interests in economics and the environment were a perfect fit,” he says.

Dr. Keiser’s work helps federal and state agencies understand the costs and benefits of certain actions directed toward improving water quality. For example, his work helps the U.S. Department of Agriculture understand where and how much money should be invested to have the greatest impact in helping reduce agricultural runoff. This, in turn, effects recreational and drinking waters, things that everyone experiences and relies on.

When asked about his research methodology, Dr. Keiser answered, “A lot of my work combines very large datasets with advanced statistical methods to understand how effective water quality policies have been.” Speaking about one of his papers on the Clean Water Act, he said his team “compiled nearly 50 million records on pollution to study how a large federal grants program impacted water quality and housing values.” Why did they study housing values? “The reason we looked at housing values is that they are believed to reflect what people are willing to pay for changes in the environment. Environmental quality, like clean water, is not something that we can buy and sell in stores, so economists must use other ways to infer how much society values it. In the Clean Water Act paper, we assume that housing values reflect how much people valued local improvements due to the federal grants program. Their benefits can then be compared against their costs.” However, he also points out that other factors may affect the end conclusion, such as “the fact that these local benefits exclude any benefits society places on improvements in water quality even if they might not use the resource. For example, even though we live here in Iowa, we might be willing to donate money to improve water quality in the Gulf of Mexico to know that it helps aquatic species there.”

For those who are unfamiliar with the intersectionality of water quality and economics, Dr. Keiser explains that economics is crucial in examining the effectiveness of our country’s policies and spending regarding our water resources, given that the United States has spent almost $5 trillion on water quality programs since the 1970s. Furthermore, economics is also utilized in other STEM fields, especially those related to energy, engineering, and the environment. So, even if someone is interested in contributing to the study of water quality but isn’t keen on a STEM career, there are other ways to be involved in this field.

The impact of Dr. Keiser’s work is significant, affecting many levels of government and ultimately the communities within the United States. Water is vital to our everyday lives, and the work of economists such as Dr. Keiser is helping us understand how to best act to protect this important resource.

Hannah Huang

Ames High School Spirit of the Water Essay Contest Winner

 

References:

Keiser, David. “Interview Questions for Spirit of the Water Essay Contest.” Received by Hannah Huang, 27 January 2019. Email Interview.

Saturated Riparian Buffers: Who Says You Can’t Teach an Old Buffer New Tricks?

Getting into Soil and Water 2020

Figure 1. A saturated riparian buffer in Iowa.

 

The Perks of Buffers

Replacing farmland adjacent to streams with grasses or forests provides many benefits to agricultural ecosystems. Commonly referred to as riparian buffers, perennial vegetation planted along stream corridors improves wildlife habitat and reduces soil erosion and nutrient losses from overland water flow (Lee et al., 2000). Properly managed buffers have been shown to increase the quantity and diversity of bird species and pollinators, considered vital to agriculture sustainability (Bradbury et al., 2019). Buffered streambanks are also less susceptible to soil erosion, losing up to 80% less soil than row cropped or grazed stream banks (Schultz, 2004). Riparian buffers have also been shown to remove nitrogen from groundwater leaving agricultural fields. Microbes in the soil use the nitrogen as an energy source, converting nitrate to non-reactive nitrogen gas. The United States Department of Agriculture has acknowledged the multifunctional benefits of riparian buffers by promoting them as a part of the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP). Over 1.2 million acres of farmland are currently enrolled in filter strip or riparian buffer CRP contracts, and Iowa leads the country with over 200,000 acres enrolled (FSA, 2019). Traditional riparian buffers play a key role in improving water quality in Iowa by reducing soil and nutrient losses from water moving across the land surface, but they are ineffective at removing the bulk of nitrogen lost from Iowa farmland that is routed to streams in subsurface tile drains.

Tile drains are commonly installed on poorly drained soil, lowering the water table to improve crop yields. Drainage water often contains elevated concentrations of soluble nutrients, including nitrate. The 17.4 million acres of drained land in the Midwest act as the largest source of nitrogen to the Gulf of Mexico, contributing to an annual Hypoxic Zone. Hypoxia is caused in the Gulf of Mexico from excess nitrogen and phosphorus contributing to algal blooms and the subsequent depletion of oxygen from algal decomposition. Each state in the Mississippi River Basin has implemented a nutrient reduction strategy to reduce the size of the Hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico. Iowa is one of the largest nutrient contributors to the Gulf and was the first state to implement a nutrient reduction strategy. Iowa’s strategy uses both in-field and edge-of- field conservation practices to reduce nutrient losses from Iowa. One of these edge-of-field practices redesigns traditional riparian buffers to also remove nitrogen from tile drainage. Referred to as saturated riparian buffers (SRBs), nitrate is removed from tile water by rerouting the water back into the buffer before it reaches the stream.

Figure 2. A diagram of a saturated riparian buffer equipped with a two cham- bered water control structure.

 

How Saturated Riparian Buffers Work

Saturated riparian buffers work by intercepting a tile drain as it leaves the field and crosses into a riparian buffer. Tile water is diverted into a distribution pipe where it then seeps through the buffer’s soil to the stream. To construct a SRB, a two chambered water control structure is placed at the field outlet. See Figure 1. The chambers are separated by flashboards set to a depth that raises the water table in the buffer without pushing water back into the field. Tile water leaves the field and enters the first chamber where it flows into one of two distribution outlets located on each side of the control structure. Distribution pipes are installed to a depth of around 2 feet and run parallel to the stream. The flashboards dividing the two chambers raises the water level in the control structure forcing water into the distribution pipes, where it then moves as shallow groundwater through the buffer. In cases of high flow from tile drains, the second chamber houses an overflow discharge pipe to prevent water backing up into the adjacent field. Once nitrate rich tile water becomes shallow groundwater in the riparian buffer, nitrate can be removed by microbes or plant uptake. Riparian buffers remove around 50% of the nitrate that leaves the field, or 134 lbs N per drained acre (Jaynes and Isenhart, 2018). Recent research has determined the majority of nitrate removed from SRBs is likely by microbes converting nitrate to non-reactive nitrogen gas in a process called denitrification (Groh et al., 2019). Saturated riparian buffers have shown early promise as a practice to remove nitrate from tile drainage and have been quickly integrated into the CRP program and the Iowa Nutrient Reduction Strategy. It will take a widespread implementation of SRBs alongside other conservation practices, including wetlands, cover crops, and woodchip bioreactors, to reach nutrient reduction strategy goals.

Morgan Davis, PhD

Postdoctoral Fellow Agronomy
Iowa State University

 

References:

Bradbury, S., Isenhart, T. M, and Schweitzer, D. 2019. Establishing and Managing Pollinator Habitat on Saturated Riparian Buffers. Iowa State Extension and Outreach. https://store.extension.iastate.edu/product/Establishing-and-Managing-Pollinator-Habi- tat-on-Saturated-Riparian-Buffers.

FSA. 2019. Conservation Reserve Program monthly summary: November 2019. Farm Service Agency, USDA, Washington, DC. https://www.fsa.usda.gov/ Assets/US- DA-FSA-Public/usdafiles/Conservation/PDF/November2019Summary.pdf (accessed 4 Jan. 2020).

Groh, T. A., Davis, M. P., Isenhart, T. M., Jaynes, D. B., and Parkin, T. B. 2019 In situ denitrification in saturated riparian buffers. J. Environ. Qual. 48:376-84. doi:10.2134/ jeq2018.03.0125.

Jaynes, D. B. and Isenhart, T. M. 2018. Performance of saturated riparian buffers in Iowa, USA. J. Environ. Qual. 48:289–296. doi:10.2134/jeq2018.03.0115.

Lee, K. H., Isenhart, T. M., Schultz, R. C., and Mickelson, S. K. 2000. Multispecies riparian buffers trap sediment and nutrients during rainfall simulations. J. Environ. Qual. 29:1200–1205. doi:10.2134/ jeq2000.00472425002900040025x

Bee Branch Healthy Homes Project

Getting into Soil and Water 2020

Finished basement project at occupant’s home where drainage dimple board, sump pump with battery back up and a humidistat vent fan were installed rendering this space usable for the first time in over a decade.

 

The City of Dubuque’s Bee Branch Watershed is the area hit hardest by flash flooding during significant rain events. Frequently, several feet of water inundate homes destroying water heaters, furnaces, washers, dryers, and personal belongings. Disinvestment in the flood prone area resulted in declining property values. Equally as important, were the residual effects on its residents including poor health, negative neighborhood perceptions, stress, and a general feeling of helplessness against Mother Nature.

“Nobody would put any money into their homes, and you couldn’t blame them for the simple fact that the water would ruin everything,” said Cletus Cashman, 90-year-old lifelong Dubuque resident and participant of the Bee Branch Healthy Homes (BBHH) Resiliency Program.

In 1999, the City hired a consultant to study the nature of the flash flooding. The study, called the Drainage Basin Master Plan, determined that approximately 1,150 homes and businesses were at risk of flood damage. It also recommended major infrastructure projects to eliminate risk from flood damage. In 2003, the city began working on a multi-phased, watershed- wide approach to protect its residents.

Since then, millions have been invested to slow the rate of stormwater, reduce the amount of stormwater runoff, and safely channel stormwater through the city’s North End neighborhood. Several strategies have been used including retention basins, permeable pavement systems, storm sewer capacity improvements, and daylighting one-mile of the Bee Branch Creek and its associated floodplain.

Helping watershed residents living with residual issues from flooding was the city’s top priority when applying for Community Development Block Grant – National Disaster Resilience Competition (CDBG-NDR) funds in 2014 and 2015. The grant team made the strategic move to incorporate repairs and renovations to homes in addition to public infrastructure improvements.

The application was successful, and in 2016 the State of Iowa was awarded $96 million to make flood improvements in nine watersheds as part of the Iowa Watershed Approach including Dubuque’s Bee Branch Watershed. The City received $23 million for infrastructure improvements and $8.4 million for the Bee Branch Healthy Homes Resiliency Program.

Dubuque’s approach includes right sizing public infrastructure, repairing
and renovating homes to reduce water intrusion and address damage, and family advocacy support. This triangle represents a comprehensive plan to simultaneously improve neighborhood, structural, and social resilience. Knowing this innovative approach could serve as a replicable model for other communities, the city has captured data throughout the program.

To date, BBHH has helped 200 families address water intrusion and prepare for future rain events. On average, improvements range between $10,000 – $28,000 depending on project scope and property type. The program is available to owner-occupied homes, single-unit rentals, and multi-family residential units that are located in the eligibility area and meet income requirements established by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.

In September 2019 a 2-3” flash flood event inundated this BBHH project home in just a couple hours, forcing it’s two families to leave the home in the middle of the night.

 

Every participating household is required to visit with a BBHH advocate. They talk about any barriers or challenges the family is facing. These self-identified challenges are sorted into five categories: health, education, financial, social, and built environment. Classifying the challenges has helped evaluate gaps in services throughout the community. Disaggregating the data by subgroups such as race/ethnicity and tenant versus owner-occupied has been integral in understanding that subgroups experience different challenges and require different approaches in order to create positive outcomes.

Existing conditions found in the basement of a project after years of water intrusion. Poor Air quality and water wicking materials contributed to asthma triggers for the family living in the home.

 

There have been several lessons learned throughout the program. Property drainage is critical. This includes soil modifications and effective gutter and downspout systems. Keeping water away from the home is more important
than any other modification. Once inside the home, raising furnaces and water heaters off the floor as little as six to eight inches can save them from flood damage. Dehumidification with permanent high-power vent fans, sump pumps, and tuck pointing have been equally common modifications to create a drier and healthier home.

What happens upstream effects downstream. This is equally as true in urban watersheds as it is for our rural neighbors. This can be applied at all levels – from stormwater management in our streets to a home gutter system dumping water directly on an adjacent property. Part of being a good neighbor is looking at how your home impacts others. It also means checking on your neighbors during flash flood events to make sure they are safe. Hearing that neighbors are talking to each other because of the program is the greatest compliment the city can receive. Relationships among neighbors and structural improvements to both public and private infrastructure is creating greater neighborhood resilience, and the city couldn’t be more proud to tell that story.

 

Sharon Gaul

Grants Project Manager
City of Dubuque

Factors That Influence Farmer Adoption of Conservation Practices

Getting into Soil and Water 2020

Field days are an excellent way to promote conservation through farmer-to-farmer learning. (Courtesy of Practical Farmers of Iowa)

Although farming is essential for providing food and fiber for society, farming practices can often come with unintentional environmental costs. While farmers do not wish to deliberately contribute to the degradation of natural resources, the current dominant system

of agricultural production in the Midwest has resulted in considerable soil erosion, substantially impaired water and air quality, and dramatically decreased wildlife and pollinator habitat. Fortunately, a large suite of conservation practices has been developed through years of cooperative research between universities and farmers to address these environmental concerns.

Such practices include things like cover crops, no-till farming, terraces, grassed waterways, prairie strips, diverse crop rotations, and stream buffers. While significant progress has been made over the past several decades, farmers on the whole have not yet voluntarily adopted these practices at a rate necessary to adequately balance agricultural production with natural resource sustainability throughout the Midwest. Understanding how and why farmers make decisions, including what factors influence the decision making process, is key for natural resource professionals to develop strategies for increasing the rate of farmer adoption of conservation practices.

Rural sociologists and other social scientists have been studying farmer behavior since the Dust Bowl era of the 1930s. One of the most important findings from this research has been that farmers are an incredibly diverse group of people with a wide array of beliefs, motivations, attitudes, values, and social norms that influence their behavior in very complex ways. This means that there is no singular strategy that natural resource professionals and policy makers are able to use to help encourage farmers to adopt conservation practices on their land. That being said, two recent projects led by researchers at Iowa State University and Purdue University analyzing decades of research studies have identified a number of factors that have most consistently been found to have an influence on adoption.

These meta-analysis research papers found that in general, farmers with larger farm sizes and income, farmers with higher levels of formal education, younger farmers, and those with farmland more vulnerable to erosion were more likely to adopt conservation practices. Additionally, farmers that identify with an environmental stewardship ethic, those who actively seek information about conservation practices, those who have previously adopted a practice, and those who have influential conservationist farmer leaders within their communities are more likely to adopt conservation practices.

Several conservation practices at a glance. (Courtesy of Iowa NRCS)

Cost-share programs provided by state and federal agencies that help farmers pay for part of the cost of conservation practices have a positive influence on adoption. However, farmer awareness of these programs, as well as having positive attitudes about the programs themselves and the practices they pay for, are key to the amount of influence these programs have. Farmers who interact with natural resource professionals through conservation networks and programs are also more likely to adopt conservation practices. My own research has found a correlation between how often a farmer visits their local USDA office for conservation assistance and the likelihood that they will adopt certain conservation practices.

When considering the factors that influence farmers’ decisions, it is crucial to understand that farming is an enterprise that involves very high risks, and farmers often operate on extremely thin profit margins. The ISU and Purdue research teams identified several common barriers associated with risk that have a negative influence on adoption of conservation practices. The financial cost of practices, perceived reduction in crop yields, practice compatibility with existing farming practices, market fluctuations in crop prices, distrust of community or government agencies, neighbors’ lack of success with practices, complicated program application processes, and farmer uncertainty about potential practices can all decrease the likelihood that a farmer will adopt conservation practices.

Based on these findings, the authors of the two meta-studies also included several recommendations for natural resource professionals who work with farmers. Identifying and collaborating with farmer leaders in rural communities to facilitate conservation social norms through workshops and field days can be highly influential on other farmers. Increasing awareness by educating farmers about the benefits and potential risks, as well as how conservation practices can reduce risk, decreases uncertainty and can therefore increase adoption. Assisting farmers with cost- share programs helps offset financial risks, and accentuating other farmers’ positive experiences with adoption can be especially effective. Finally, one of the most important factors that influences farmers to adopt conservation is facilitating the development of long-term relationships and opportunities for knowledge transfer between natural resource professionals and farmers and between farmers themselves!

 

Chris Morris

Graduate Research Assistant Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Sociology, Iowa State University

Butts Selected as a Recipient for the Iowa Water Center’s Research Grant Competition

Ames, Iowa – The Iowa Water Center (IWC) annually administers a statewide grant competition known as the IWC Graduate Student Supplemental Research Competition. 

The purpose of this funding is to help graduate students to complete additional research objectives beyond the scope of their current work, with an emphasis on submitting their research to peer-reviewed publications. 

Tyler Butts is one of the recipients, along with three other graduate students across Iowa. Each recipient will receive funding for various different research studies. 

Butts’ research focuses on the relationship between food web structure and ecosystem resilience, as well as how food web structure affects greenhouse gas flux. 

In order to gain a further understanding of this relationship, Butts and his research team proposed an experiment that will test the effects that three different food web structures have on ecosystems using six experimental ponds. Each food web structure will have varying amounts of complexity and will be replicated in two separate ponds.  

The goal of this experiment is to not only gain a newfound understanding, but to then share this knowledge in order to implement more prosperous lake restoration programs. 

Get to know Tyler Butts, a PhD student at Iowa State University. 

Butts was raised in a small town in south central Wisconsin. Butts grew up around lakes, as well as being an avid fan of Steve Irwin and the Discovery Channel, which he believes had an impact on his career path. 

Butts attended St. Norbert College in Wisconsin to obtain his undergraduate degree. While studying there, he worked with Dr. Carrie Kissman to investigate how zooplankton were being affected by river dredging in Green Bay, Wisconsin. This inspired Butts to dig deeper into how disturbances may affect bodies of water, but he wanted to explore the entire food web instead of just zooplankton. He was directed to Dr. Grace Wilkinson, a limnologist, ecosystem ecologist and assistant professor at Iowa State University, who is also interested in food webs at an ecosystem level. 

In the summer of 2019, Butts and his fellow research team members conducted an experiment in the Horticulture Research Station at Iowa State that tested how the density of bigmouth buffalo affected the ecosystem resilience of these experimental ponds. In this research, the team found that a higher density of bigmouth buffalo led to algae blooming quicker and at a more intense rate compared to the ponds that contained a low density or no bigmouth buffalo.  This experiment led the group to inquire further and apply for the IWC Graduate Student Research Competition. 

“The Iowa Water Center program’s focus on research and emphasis on exploring the challenges to water sustainability made it the perfect home for our proposal,” said Butts. 

Butts’ shared that his favorite part of the research process is to delve into the background information that we already have access to and find the areas of that research that need more clarification. He also explained that helping others through the scientific process has been very fulfilling. 

“Guiding undergraduates through the scientific process from asking a question, to running an experiment, and writing up a report or presenting a poster is extremely rewarding,” Butts shared. 

When Butts isn’t practicing research experiments, he enjoys to spend most of his time doing various outdoor activities. One of his favorite pastimes is to hike around lakes or rivers because of the opportunity he gets to reconnect with the ecosystems that he spends his time working with. Butts also enjoys camping, reading, playing strategy games and playing jazz. He shared that he hasn’t had much of a chance to find time to play since moving to Ames, but still loves to play when he gets the opportunity.  

Jadidoleslam Selected as a Recipient for the Iowa Water Center’s Research Grant Competition

Written by Meghan Hanley

Ames, Iowa – The Iowa Water Center (IWC) annually administers a statewide grant competition known as the IWC Graduate Student Supplemental Research Competition.

The purpose of this funding is to help graduate students complete additional research objectives beyond the scope of their current work, with an emphasis on submitting their research to peer-reviewed publications.

Navid Jadidoleslam has been selected, along with three other graduate students across Iowa, as recipients for this year’s grant competition. Each recipient will receive funding for various different research studies.

Jadidoleslam’s proposed research is focused around developing software to improve the way hydrologic data are visualized and published. This new open-source software is named Hydrovise.

The goal behind Hydrovise is to make the process of hydrologic data visualization and analysis more user friendly. Hydrovise allows users to assess data in space, time and variable data cubes – without using a database. This software enables users to visualize time-series and geospatial data with minimal effort or background knowledge on web development. Hydrovise is a tool for communicating hydrologic data in an interactive and transparent way. Users can easily visualize and publish hydrologic datasets in Open Data journals or alongside their publications as well.

Hydrovise is an open-source code published under MIT license terms. You can learn more about Hydrovise here.

Get to know Navid Jadidoleslam, a PhD student at the University of Iowa.

Jadidoleslam is originally from Tabriz, Iran where he earned his undergraduate degree in civil engineering in 2012. He then started his master’s degree at Istanbul Technical University, where his studies focused on hydraulic and water resources engineering. After obtaining his master’s, Jadidoleslam researched different PhD programs at universities in the U.S.  and chose the University of Iowa due to the Iowa Institute for Hydraulic Research’s (IIHR) esteemed reputation in water resources engineering.

Jadidoleslam works at the Iowa Flood Center, intending to continue his research in academia in the hydroscience field. He felt as though the IWC Graduate Student Research Competition would be a great opportunity for him to gain practice in grant proposal writing and to learn the procedure that goes along with the application process. This ultimately led him to apply for the IWC’s annual funding program.

One aspect of Jadidoleslam’s proposal topic that interests him the most is the visual representation of data in an interactive way that can provide more understanding of hydrologic data and the models that go along with the research.

Jadidoleslam also shared that his favorite part of the research process is the continuous learning that occurs. The hydrologic data and models are constantly evolving with the availability of new satellite-based remote sensing platforms. He explained that he tries to learn more by doing a variety of projects under the main research focus in his studies, and he enjoys sharing his work and results with his peers.

In Jadidoleslam’s down time, he has an interest in photography that stems from his childhood. He enjoys taking landscape photographs while he experiences different aspects of nature. Jadidoleslam also takes delight in cooking, baking bread, singing and playing guitar.

Compare and Contrast of “The Death and Life of the Great Lakes” by Dan Egan

The Iowa Water Center started a monthly book club, called Iowa Water Scholars Book Club, where members of the water community can read novels surrounding around current water quality issues, as well as have Zoom discussions regarding these novels with an “expert of choice” on the topic of the month.

May was the first month that the Iowa Water Scholars Book Club was put into action, kicking off with the novel “The Death and Life of the Great Lakes” by Dan Egan.

“The Death and Life of the Great Lakes” is a novel that discusses the past, present and future of the Great Lakes, the dangers they face and the ways people can take action to repair and protect them.

We turned to Jeff Kopaska, a biometrician for the Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR), to compare and contrast the events and management techniques of aquatic invasive species that Iowa has experienced with events discussed in the novel. Kopaska’s areas of expertise involve fisheries, data and analysis of fisheries, water quality and applications of technology to natural resource challenges.

A popular issue that Iowa is currently dealing with in regards to invasive species is invasive carp. They first originated in the Mississippi River and then made their way up into Iowa’s interior rivers. There are a few different types of carp, including bighead, silver and hybrid, but all carp try to relocate quickly once in water. Bighead carp seemed to pioneer this invasion, but silver carp are more commonly found. In the past, invasive carp have found their way in Iowa lakes through Missouri drainage systems as well. This caused East and West Okoboji Lakes to have several carps.

Another common invasive species that Iowa encounters are mussels. The two types of invasive mussels are zebra and quagga; Iowa mainly has issues with zebra mussels whereas “The Death and Life of the Great Lakes” frequently discusses issues with quagga mussels. As mentioned in the novel, quagga mussels have a much deeper depth range than zebra mussels. Iowa does not have many lakes that are deep enough for quagga mussels to become a major issue, so zebra and quagga mussels are typically treated in the same way instead of separately handled.

There are a few different methods of tracking invasive species. One way to track zebra and quagga mussels is by going through veliger sampling, which consists of testing a water sample through a filter, showing the possible toxicities in the water. Another way to keep track of intruders is to be checking hard surfaces. When docks are pulled out every fall, they are inspected for any sign of an invasion.

In addition to invasive creatures, Iowa also deals with invasive vegetation. Each summer, interns travel around Iowa and take surveys of lake water to view the aquatic vegetation, what types of species there are and if any of them need extra management.

In “The Death and Life of the Great Lakes,” past experiences of managing aquatic invasive species in the Great Lakes are explained, allowing readers to understand the history of this issue and the progress that has been made. Kopaska then shared some of Iowa’s past experiences with invasive vegetation and grass carp.

In the early 1970’s, there was some extra research done Red Haw Lake, near Chariton, Iowa. It was decided that this lake would be best to use as a “guinea pig” of sorts to test the lifespan of grass carp. Staff placed grass carp in that system (“Probably too many,” Kopaska added) with the expectation that the vegetation would only survive around 10-20 years. In 2004, there were renovations made at Red Haw Lake, and there was still a large number of grass carp there, over 30 years later. They have since stopped stocking grass carp and have turned to chemical and mechanical management.

The use of chemical and mechanical means to manage vegetation has come with some controversy. The public does not seem to be fond of adding chemicals to water to solve invasive species issues. The disagreement with chemical use may lead to the resurgence of grass carp to control invasive vegetation. When asked what dealing with the management of aquatic systems is like, Kopaska replied,

“It’s kind of like managing a forest,” Kopaska said, “except you can’t see any of the trees, and they’re all moving around.”

With as many management techniques there are, there is a lot of information collected with each situation to ensure that the best decision is made for that specific body of water. Some management techniques are more of a resource or economic investment, so it is important to feel confident in the management process chosen.

Kopaska not only shared his knowledge on invasive species in Iowa with us, but also how his passion for fisheries started. Fishing has always been one of Kopaska’s favorite things to do since he was a child, even though he mentioned that he doesn’t get much time to fish recreationally as much as he would like. He grew up fishing in areas around his house, and this deep rooted love for the sport led him to his career field.

Jeff Kopaska, proudly holding a freshly caught trout.

 

At the Iowa DNR, Kopaska serves as their fisheries data steward, oversees data management activities and how that data is distributed to the public and controls a survey that inquires what the public is thinking about current DNR activities and where there is room for improvements. Along with working for the DNR, Kopaska is also the president of the North Central Division of the American Fisheries Society and cohosts a monthly podcast on KXnO called The Fishing Report.

 

If you would like to watch the full video discussion with Jeff Kopaska, here is the link.

If you are interested in reading “The Death and Life of the Great Lakes” by Dan Egan, here is a link to find an independent, Iowa bookstore that carries it!